The use of hydrogen peroxide in internal combustion engines. The method of ensuring improved combustion with the participation of hydrocarbon compounds

Hydrogen peroxide H 2 O 2 - transparent colorless liquid, noticeably more viscous than water, with characteristic, albeit weak odor. Anhydrous hydrogen peroxide is difficult to get and stored, and it is too expensive for use as rocket fuel. In general, high cost is one of the main drawbacks of hydrogen peroxide. But, compared to other oxidizing agents, it is more convenient and less dangerous in circulation.
The proposal of peroxide to spontaneous decomposition is traditionally exaggerated. Although we observed a decrease in concentration from 90% to 65% in two years of storage in liter polyethylene bottles at room temperature, but in large volumes and in a more suitable container (for example, in a 200-liter barrel of sufficiently pure aluminum) decomposition rate of 90% Packsi would be less than 0.1% per year.
The density of anhydrous hydrogen peroxide exceeds 1450 kg / m 3, which is significantly larger than in liquid oxygen, and a little less than that of nitric acid oxidants. Unfortunately, water impurities quickly reduce it, so that 90% solution has a density of 1380 kg / m 3 at room temperature, but it is still a very good indicator.
The peroxide in the EDD can also be used as unitary fuel, and as an oxidizing agent - for example, in a pair with kerosene or alcohol. Neither kerosene nor alcohol is self-proposal with peroxide, and to ensure ignition in fuel, it is necessary to add a catalyst for the decomposition of peroxide - then the released heat is sufficient for ignition. For alcohol, a suitable catalyst is acetate manganese (II). For kerosene, also there are appropriate additives, but their composition is kept secret.
The use of peroxide as unitary fuel is limited to its relatively low energy characteristics. Thus, the achieved specific impulse in vacuo for 85% peroxide is only about 1300 ... 1500 m / s (for different degrees of expansion), and for 98% - approximately 1600 ... 1800 m / s. However, the peroxide was applied first by the Americans for the orientation of the descent apparatus of the Mercury spacecraft, then, with the same purpose, the Soviet designers on the Savior Soyk QC. In addition, hydrogen peroxide is used as an auxiliary fuel for the TNA drive - for the first time on the V-2 rocket, and then on its "descendants", up to P-7. All modifications "Sexok", including the most modern, still use peroxide to drive TNA.
As an oxidizer, hydrogen peroxide is effective with various combustible. Although it gives a smaller specific impulse, rather than liquid oxygen, but when using a high concentration peroxide, the values \u200b\u200bof the UI exceed that for nitric acid oxidants with the same flammable. Of all space-carrier missiles, only one used peroxide (paired with kerosene) - English "Black Arrow". The parameters of its engines were modest - Ui of engine I steps, a little exceeded 2200 m / s at the Earth and 2500 m / s in vacuo, "since only 85% concentration was used in this rocket. This was done due to the fact that to ensure self-ignition peroxide decomposed on a silver catalyst. More concentrated peroxide would melt silver.
Despite the fact that interest in the peroxide from time to time is activated, the prospects remain foggy. So, although the Soviet EDR RD-502 ( fuel vapor - Peroxide plus pentabran) and demonstrated a specific impulse of 3680 m / s, it remained experimental.
In our projects, we focus on the peroxide also because the engines on it turn out to be more "cold" than similar engines with the same UI, but on other fuels. For example, the combustion products of "caramel" fuels have almost 800 ° with a larger temperature with the same UI. This is due to a large amount of water in peroxide reaction products and, as a result, with a low average molecular weight of the reaction products.

HYDROGEN PEROXIDE H 2 O 2 - the simplest representation of the peroxide; High-boiling oxidizing agent or single-component rocket fuel, as well as a source of vapor to drive TNA. Used in the form of aqueous solution high (up to 99%) concentration. Transparent liquid without color and smell with "metal" flavor. The density is 1448 kg / m 3 (at 20 ° C), T pl ~ 0 ° C, Ting of ~ 150 ° C. Weakly toxic, when burning, causes burns, with some organic substances forms explosive mixtures. Pure solutions are quite stable (the decomposition rate usually does not exceed 0.6% per year); In the presence of traces of a number of heavy metals (for example, copper, iron, manganese, silver) and other impurities, decomposition accelerates and can move into an explosion; To increase stability during long-term storage in hydrogen peroxide Stabilizers (phosphorus and tin compounds) are introduced. Under the influence of catalysts (for example, iron corrosion products) decomposition hydrogen peroxide Oxygen and water goes with the release of energy, while the temperature of the reaction products (vapor) depends on the concentration hydrogen peroxide: 560 ° C at 80% concentration and 1000 ° C at 99%. It is best compatible with stainless steel and pure aluminum. In the industry is obtained by hydrolysis of the supporting acid H 2 S 2 O 8, which is formed during the electrolysis of sulfuric acid H 2 SO 4. Concentrated hydrogen peroxide Found widespread use in rocket technique. Hydrogen peroxide It is a source of parogase for the TNA drive to a row (FAU-2, "Redstone", "Viking", "East", etc.), a rocket fuel oxidizer in rockets (Black Arrow, etc.) and aircraft ( 163, X-1, X-15, etc.), one-component fuel in spacecraft engines (Soyuz, Union T, etc.). It is promising its use in a pair with hydrocarbons, pentaboran and beryllium hydride.

Undoubtedly, the engine is the most important part of the rocket and one of the most complex. The task of the engine is to mix the components of the fuel, to ensure their combustion and at high speed to throw out the gases obtained during the combustion process in a given direction, creating a reactive traction. In this article, we will consider the chemical engines used now in rocket techniques. There are several of their species: solid fuel, liquid, hybrid and liquid one-component.

Any rocket engine consists of two main parts: a combustion chamber and nozzle. With a combustion chamber, I think everything is clear - this is a certain closed volume, in which fuel burning. A nozzle is intended for overclocking the gas in the process of combustion of gases until supersonic speed in one specified direction. The nozzle consists of a confusion, a channel of criticism and diffuser.

Confucos is a funnel that collects gases from the combustion chamber and directs them to the critic channel.

Criticism is the narrowest part of the nozzle. In it, gas accelerates to sound speed due to high pressure from the confusion.

Diffuser is an expanding part of the nozzle after criticism. It takes a drop in pressure and gas temperature, due to which the gas receives additional acceleration until supersonic speed.

And now we will walk through all major types of engines.

Let's start with a simple. The easiest of its design is RDTT - a rocket engine on solid fuel. In fact, it is a barrel loaded by a solid fuel and oxidation mixture having nozzle.

The combustion chamber in such an engine is the channel in the fuel charge, and the burning occurs throughout the surface area of \u200b\u200bthis channel. Often, to simplify the engine refueling, the charge is made of fuel checkers. Then the burning occurs also on the surface of the necks of the checkers.

To obtain different dependence of thrust from time, various transverse sections of the channel are used:

RDTT - The most ancient view of the rocket engine. He was invented in ancient China, but to this day he finds use both in combat missiles and in space technology. Also, this engine due to its simplicity is actively used in amateur rocket lighting.

The first American spacecraft of Mercury was equipped with six RDTT:

Three small ships from the carrier rocket after separating from it, and three large - inhibit it for the removal of the orbit.

The most powerful RDTT (and generally the most powerful rocket engine in history) is the side accelerator of the Space Shuttle system, which has developed the maximum thrust of 1400 tons. It is two of these accelerators that gave such a spectacular post of fire at the start of the shuttles. This is clearly visible, for example, on the start of the start of Shuttok Atlantis on May 11, 2009 (Mission STS-125):

The same accelerators will be used in the new SLS rocket, which will bring the new American ship Orion to orbit. Now you can see entries from ground-based accelerator tests:

The RDTT is also installed in emergency rescue systems intended for a spacecraft by a rocket in the event of an accident. Here, for example, the tests of the CAC of the Mercury ship on May 9, 1960:

On space ships, the union besides the SAS are installed soft landing engines. This is also a RDTT, which work the splits of a second, giving out a powerful impulse, quenching the speed of the ship's reduction almost to zero before the touch of the surface of the Earth. The operation of these engines is visible on the entry of the landing of the ship Union TMA-11M on May 14, 2014:

The main disadvantage of RDTT is the impossibility of controlling the burden and the impossibility of re-starting the engine after it is stop. Yes, and the engine is stopped in the case of RDTT on the fact that there is no stop, the engine either stops working due to the end of the fuel or, if necessary, stop it earlier, the cut-off of the thrust is made: the top engine and gases are shooting with a special sickness. zeroing cravings.

We will consider the following hybrid engine . Its feature is that the fuel components used are in different aggregate states. Most often used solid fuel and liquid or gas oxidizer.

Here, what does the bench test of such an engine look like:

It is this type of engine that is applied on the first private space shuttle Spaceshipone.
In contrast to RDTT GD, you can restart and adjust it. However, it was not without flaws. Because of the large combustion chamber, the PD is unprofitable to put on large rockets. Also, the UHD is inclined to "hard start" when a lot of oxidizer has accumulated in the combustion chamber, and when Ignoring the engine gives a large pulse of thrust in a short time.

Well, now consider the widest type used in the cosmonautics. rocket engines. it EDR - Liquid rocket engines.

In the combustion chamber, the EDD mixed and burn two liquids: fuel and oxidizing agent. Three fuel and oxidative couples are used in the space rockets: liquid oxygen + kerosene (Soyuz rocket), liquid hydrogen + liquid oxygen (second and third stage of the Saturn-5 missile, the second stage of Changzhin-2, Space Shuttle) and asymmetrical dimethylhydrazine + nitroxide nitroxide (nitrogen Rockets Proton and the first stage Changzhin-2). There are also tests of a new type of fuel - liquid methane.

The benefits of the EDD are low weight, the ability to regulate thrust over a wide range (throttling), the possibility of multiple launches and a greater specific impulse compared to the engines of other types.

The main disadvantage of such engines is the breathtaking complexity of the design. This is in my scheme everything just looks, and in fact, when designing the EDD, it is necessary to deal with a number of problems: the need for good mixing of fuel components, the complexity of maintaining high pressure in the combustion chamber, uneven fuel combustion, strong heating of the combustion chamber and nozzle walls, complexity With ignition, corrosion exposure to the oxidant on the walls of the combustion chamber.

To solve all these problems, many complex and not very engineering solutionsWhy does the Easphere look like a nightmare of a drunken plumbing, for example, this RD-108:

Combustion and nozzle cameras are clearly visible, but pay attention to how many tubes, aggregates and wires! And all this is necessary for stable and reliable engine operation. There is a turbochargeable unit for supplying fuel and oxidizing agent in combustion chambers, a gas generator for a turbochargeable unit, combustion and nozzle cooling shirts, ring tubes on nozzles for creating a cooling curtain from fuel, nozzle for resetting generator gas and drainage tubes.

We will look at the work in more detail in one of the following articles, but still go to the latest type of engines: one-component.

The operation of such an engine is based on the catalytic decomposition of hydrogen peroxide. Surely many of you remember school experience:

The school uses pharmacy three percent peroxide, but the reaction using 37% peroxide:

It can be seen how the steam jet (in a mixture with oxygen, of course), is seen from the neck of the flask. Than not jet engine?

Motors at hydrogen peroxide are used in the orientation systems of spacecraft, when the large value of the thrust is not necessary, and the simplicity of the engine design and its small mass is very important. Of course, the hydrogen peroxide concentration used is far from 3% and not even 30%. 100% concentrated peroxide gives a mixture of oxygen with water vapor during the reaction, heated to one and a half thousand degrees, which creates high pressure In the combustion chamber and high rate of gas expiration from the nozzle.

The simplicity of the single-component engine design could not not attract the attention of amateurs rocket users. Here is an example of an amateur single-component engine.

John C. Whitehead, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory L-43, Po Box 808 LIVERMORE, CA 94551 925-423-4847 [Email Protected]

Summary. As the size of the satellites developed is reduced, it becomes more difficult to pick up for them motor installations (Du), providing the necessary parameters of controllability and maneuverability. Compressed gas is traditionally used on the smallest satellites. To increase efficiency, and at the same time reducing the cost compared with hydrazine removal, hydrogen peroxide is proposed. Minimum toxicity and small required installation dimensions allow multiple tests in convenient laboratory conditions. Achievements are described in the direction of creating low-cost engines and fuel tanks with self-ad.

Introduction

Classical Technology Du reached high level And continues to develop. It is capable of fully satisfying the needs of spacecraft weighing hundreds and thousands of kilograms. Systems sent to flight sometimes do not even pass tests. It turns out to be quite sufficient to use well-known conceptual solutions and choose the nodes tested in flight. Unfortunately, such nodes are usually too high and heavy for use in small satellites, weighing tens of kilograms. As a result, the latter had to rely mainly on engines operating on compressed nitrogen. Compressed nitrogen gives UI only 50-70 C [approximately 500-700 m / s], requires heavy tanks and has low density (for example, about 400 kg / cubic meters. M at a pressure of 5000 psi [approximately 35 MPa]). A significant difference in the price and properties of the Du on the compressed nitrogen and on the hydrazine makes it look for intermediate solutions.

IN last years Investigation of concentrated hydrogen peroxide was revived as rocket fuel for engines of various scales. The peroxide is most attractive when used in new developments, where previous technologies cannot compete directly. Such developments are the satellites weighing 5-50 kg. As one-component fuel, the peroxide has a high density (\u003e 1300 kg / cubic meters) and a specific impulse (UI) in a vacuum of about 150 ° C [approximately 1500 m / s]. Although it is significantly less than the hydrazine Ui, approximately 230 s [about 2300 m / s], alcohol or hydrocarbon in combination with peroxide are capable of lifting UI to the range of 250-300 s [from about 2500 to 3000 m / s].

The price is an important factor here, since it only makes sense to use peroxide if it is cheaper than to build reduced variants of classical DU technologies. Sharpness is very likely to consider that work with poisonous components increases the development, checking and launch of the system. For example, for testing rocket engines on poisonous components there are only a few stands, and their number gradually decreases. In contrast, microsatellite developers can themselves develop their own peroxidant technology. The fuel safety argument is especially important when working with little accelerated systems. It is much easier to make such systems if you can carry out frequent inexpensive tests. In this case, the accidents and spills of the components of rocket fuel should be considered as proper, just as, for example, an emergency to stop a computer program when debugging it. Therefore, when working with poisonous fuels, the standard are working methods that prefer evolutionary, gradual changes. It is possible that the use of less toxic fuels in microsteps will benefit from serious changes in the design.

The work described below is part of a greater research program aimed at studying new space technologies for small applications. Tests are completed by the completed prototypes of microsatellites (1). Similar topics, which are of interest, include small fills with a pumping supply of fuel for flights to Mars, Moon and back with small financial costs. Such possibilities can be very useful for sending small research apparatus to deductible trajectories. The purpose of this article is to create a Du technology that uses hydrogen peroxide and does not require expensive materials or development methods. Efficiency criterion in this case is a significant superiority over the possibilities provided by the remote control on the compressed nitrogen. A neat analysis of microsatellite needs helps to avoid unnecessary system requirements that increase its price.

Requirements for motor technology

In the perfect world of the Satellite, the satellite must be seamless as well as computer peripherals today. However, do not have the characteristics that have no other satellite subsystem. For example, fuel is often the most massive part of the satellite, and its spending can change the center of mass of the device. Vectors of thrust, designed to change the speed of the satellite, must, of course, pass through the center of mass. Although the issues associated with heat exchange are important for all components of the satellite, they are especially complex for Du. The engine creates the hottest satellite points, and at the same time fuel often has a narrower permissible temperature range than other components. All these reasons lead to the fact that maneuvering tasks seriously affect the entire satellite project.

If for electronic systems, the characteristics are usually considered specified, then it is not so for it. This concerns the possibility of storing in orbit, sharp inclusions and shutdowns, the ability to withstand arbitrarily long periods of inaction. From the point of view of the engine engineer, the definition of the task includes a schedule showing when and how long each engine should work. This information may be minimal, but in any case it lowers engineering difficulties and cost. For example, the AU can be tested using relatively inexpensive equipment if it does not matter to observe the time of operation of the Du with an accuracy of milliseconds.

Other conditions, usually reducing the system, may be, for example, the need for accurate prediction of thrust and specific impulse. Traditionally, such information made it possible to apply precisely calculated speed correction with a predetermined time of operation of the Du. Given the modern level of sensors and computational capabilities available on board the satellite, it makes sense to integrate acceleration until a specified change in speed is reached. Simplified requirements allow you to reduce individual developments. It is possible to avoid accurate fitting pressure and streams, as well as expensive tests in a vacuum chamber. The thermal conditions of the vacuum, however, still have to take into account.

The easiest Motor Maswer - turn on the engine only once, at an early stage of the satellite. In this case, the initial conditions and time of heating Du affect the least. Fuel leakage deaches before and after the maneuver will not affect the result. Such a simple scenario may be difficult for another reason, for example, due to the large speed gain. If the required acceleration is high, then the size of the engine and its mass become even more important.

The most complex tasks of the work of Du are tens of thousands or more short pulses separated by clock or minutes of inaction over the years. Transition processes at the beginning and end of the pulse, thermal losses in the device, fuel leakage - all this should be minimized or eliminated. This type of thrust is typical for the task of 3-axis stabilization.

The problem of intermediate complexity can be considered periodic inclusions of the Du. Examples are changes orbit, atmospheric loss compensation, or periodic changes in the orientation of the satellite stabilized by rotation. Such a mode of operation is also found in satellites that have inertial flywheels or which are stabilized by the gravitational field. Such flights usually include brief periods of high-activity Du. This is important because the hot components of fuel will lose less energy during such periods of activity. You can use more simple devicesThan for long-term maintenance of orientation, so such flights are good candidates for the use of inexpensive liquid doors.

Requirements for the developed engine

A small level of thrust suitable for maneuvers change the orbit of small satellites is approximately equal to that used on large spacecraft to maintain orientation and orbit. However, the existing minor thrust engines tested in flights are usually designed to solve the second task. Such additional nodes as an electric heater warming up the system before use, as well as thermal insulation allow you to achieve a high medium specific impulse with numerous short engines. The dimensions and weight of the equipment increase, which can be acceptable for large devices, but not fit for small. The relative mass of the thrust system is even less beneficial for electric rocket engines. Arc and ion engines have a very small thrust in relation to the mass of the engines.

Requirements for the service life also limit the allowable mass and size of the motor installation. For example, in the case of one-component fuel, the addition of the catalyst can increase the service life. The orientation system engine can operate in the amount of several hours during the time of service. However, the satellite tanks can be empty in minutes if there is a sufficiently large change of orbit. To prevent leaks and ensure the tight closing of the valve, even after many starts in the lines, several valves put in a row. Additional valves may be unjustified for small satellites.

Fig. 1 shows that liquid engines can not always be reduced in proportion to use for small thrust systems. Large engines Usually raise 10 - 30 times more than their weight, and this number increases to 100 for rocket carrier engines with pumping fuel. However, the smallest liquid engines cannot even raise their weight.

Engines for satellites is difficult to make small.

Even if a small existing engine is slightly easy to serve as the main engine maneuvering engine, select a set of 6-12 liquid engines for a 10-kilogram device is almost impossible. Therefore, microsavers are used for the orientation of compressed gas. As shown in Fig. 1, there are gas engines with a traction ratio to mass the same as large rocket engines. Gas engines It is simply a solenoid valve with a nozzle.

In addition to solving the problem of the mass of the propulsion, the system on compressed gas allows you to obtain shorter pulses than liquid motors. This property is important for continuous maintaining orientation for long flights, as shown in the application. As the sizes of spacecraft decrease, increasingly short pulses can be quite sufficient to maintain orientation with a given accuracy for this service life.

Although the systems on compressed gas look as a whole well for use on small spacecraft, gas storage containers occupy quite large volume and weigh quite a lot. Modern composite tanks for storing nitrogen, designed for small satellites, weigh as much as nitrogen itself prisonered in them. For comparison, tanks for liquid fuels in space ships can store fuel weighing up to 30 masses of tanks. Given the weight of both the tanks and engines, it would be very useful to store fuel in liquid form, and convert it to the gas for the distribution between different orientation system engines. Such systems were designed to use hydrazine in short subborital experimental flights.

Hydrogen peroxide as rocket fuel

As one-component fuel, pure H2O2 decomposes on oxygen and superheated steam, having a temperature slightly higher than 1800F [approximately 980c - approx. Per.] In the absence of heat losses. Usually the peroxide is used in the form of an aqueous solution, but at a concentration less than 67% of the expansion energy is not enough to evaporate all the water. Pilotable test devices in the 1960s. 90% perooles were used to maintain the orientation of the devices, which gave the temperature of the adiabatic decomposition of about 1400F and the specific impulse with the steady process 160 s. At a concentration of 82%, the peroxide gives a gas temperature of 1030F, which leads to the movement of the main pumps of the engine rocket rocket union. Various concentrations are used because the price of fuel is growing with an increase in the concentration, and the temperature affects the properties of materials. For example, aluminum alloys are used at temperatures to about 500f. When using the adiabatic process, it limits the concentration of peroxide to 70%.

Concentration and cleaning

Hydrogen peroxide is available commercially in a wide range of concentrations, degrees of cleaning and quantities. Unfortunately, small containers of pure peroxide, which could be directly used as fuel, are practically not available on sale. Rocket peroxide is available in large barrels, but may not be quite accessible (for example, in the USA). In addition, when working with large quantities, special equipment and additional safety measures are needed, which is not fully justified if necessary only in small quantities of peroxide.

For use in this project, 35% peroxide is bought in polyethylene containers with a volume of 1 gallon. First, it concentrates to 85%, then cleaned on the installation shown in Fig. 2. This variant of the previously used method simplifies the installation scheme and reduces the need to clean the glass parts. The process is automated, so that for obtaining 2 liters of peroxide per week requires only daily filling and emptying of vessels. Of course, the price per liter is high, but the full amount is still justified for small projects.

First, in two liter glasses on electric stoves in the exhaust closet, most of the water are evaporated during the period controlled by the timer at 18 o'clock. The volume of fluid in each glass decreases four-solid, to 250 ml, or about 30% of the initial mass. When evaporation, a quarter of the initial peroxide molecules is lost. The loss rate is growing with a concentration, so that for this method, the practical concentration limit is 85%.

Installation on the left is a commercially available rotary vacuum evaporator. 85% solution having about 80 ppm extraneous impurities is heated by the amounts of 750 ml on a water bath at 50c. Installation is supported by a vacuum not higher than 10 mm Hg. Art. that ensures fast distillation for 3-4 hours. Condensate flows into the container on the left below with losses less than 5%.

The bath with a water jet pump is visible behind the evaporator. It has two electric pumps, one of which supplies water to the water jet pump, and the second circulates the water through the freezer, the water refrigerator of the rotary evaporator and the bath itself, maintaining the water temperature just above the zero, which improves both the condensation of the vapor in the refrigerator and the vacuum in System. Packey pairs that did not condensed on the refrigerator fall into the bath and bred to a safe concentration.

Pure hydrogen peroxide (100%) is significantly densely water (1.45 times at 20c), so that the floating glass range (in the range of 1.2-1.4) usually determines the concentration with an accuracy of up to 1%. As purchased initially, the peroxide and the distilled solution were analyzed to the content of impurities, as shown in Table. 1. The analysis included plasma-emission spectroscopy, ion chromatography and the measurement of the complete content of organic carbon (TOTAL ORGANIC CARBON - TOC). Note that phosphate and tin are stabilizers, they are added in the form of potassium and sodium salts.

Table 1. Analysis of hydrogen peroxide solution

Safety measures when handling hydrogen peroxide

H2O2 decomposes on oxygen and water, so it does not have long-term toxicity and does not represent hazards for ambient. The most frequent troubles from the peroxide occurs during contact with leather droplets, too small to detect. This causes temporary non-hazardous, but painful discolored spots that need to be rolled with cold water.

Action on the eyes and lungs are more dangerous. Fortunately, the pressure of the peroxide vapor is quite low (2 mm Hg. Art. At 20c). Exhaust ventilation easily supports the concentration below the respiratory limit in 1 ppm installed by OSHA. The peroxide can be overflowing between open containers over the folds in case of spill. For comparison, N2O4 and N2H4 should be constantly in sealed vessels, a special breathing apparatus is often used when working with them. This is due to their significantly higher pressure of vapors and limiting concentration in air at 0.1 ppm for N2H4.

Washing spilled peroxide water makes it not hazardous. As for protective clothing requirements, uncomfortable suits can increase the probability of the strait. When working with small quantities, it is possible that it is more important to follow the issues of convenience. For example, work with wet hands is a reasonable alternative to work in gloves that can even skip splashes if they proceed.

Although the liquid peroxide does not decompose in the mass under the action of the source of fire, the pair of concentrated peroxide can be detected with insignificant effects. This potential danger puts the limit of the production volume of the installation described above. Calculations and measurements show a very high degree of security for these small production volumes. In fig. 2 The air is drawn into horizontal ventilation gaps located behind the device, at 100 CFM (cubic feet per minute, about 0.3 cubic meters per minute) along 6 feet (180 cm) of the laboratory table. The concentration of vapors below 10 ppm was measured directly over concentrating glasses.

The utilization of small amounts of peroxide after breeding them does not lead to environmental consequences, although it contradicts the most strict interpretation of the rules for the disposal of hazardous waste. Peroxide - oxidizing agent, and, therefore, potentially flammable. At the same time, however, it is necessary for the presence of combustible materials, and anxiety is not justified when working with small amounts of materials due to heat dissipation. For example, wet spots on tissues or loose paper will stop the ugly flame, since the peroxide has a high specific heat capacity. Containers for storing peroxide should have ventilating holes or safety valves, since the gradual decomposition of the peroxide per oxygen and water increases pressure.

Compatibility of materials and self-discharge when stored

Compatibility between concentrated peroxide and structural materials includes two different classes of problems that need to be avoided. Contact with peroxide can lead to a damage of materials, as occurs with many polymers. In addition, the rate of decomposition of peroxide differs greatly depending on the contactable materials. In both cases, there is an effect of accumulating effects with time. Thus, compatibility should be expressed in numerical values \u200b\u200band is considered in the context of application, and not considered as a simple property, which is either there, or not. For example, an engine camera can be built from a material that is unsuitable for use for fuel tanks.

Historical works include experiments on compatibility with samples of materials conducted in glass vessels with concentrated peroxide. In maintaining tradition, small sealing vessels were made of samples for testing. Observations for changing pressure and vessels show the rate of decomposition and peroxide leakage. In addition to this, the possible increase in volume or weakening of the material becomes noticeable, since the vessel walls are exposed to pressure.

Fluoropolymers, such as polytetrafluoroethylene (POLYTETRAFLUROTHYLENE), POLYCHLOCHLOROTRIFLUROTHYLENE) and Polyvinylidene fluoride (PLDF - Polyvinylidene Fluoride) are not decomposed under the action of peroxide. They also lead to a slowdown in the peroxide decomposition, so that these materials can be used to cover the tanks, or intermediate containers if they need to store fuel for several months or years. Similarly, the compactors from the fluorooelastomer (from the standard "Witon") and fluorine-containing lubricants are quite suitable for long-term contact with peroxide. Polycarbonate plastic is surprisingly not affected by concentrated peroxide. This material that does not form fragments is used wherever transparency is necessary. These cases include the creation of prototypes with a complex internal structure and tanks in which it is necessary to see the fluid level (see Fig. 4).

Decomposition When contacting the material AL-6061-T6 is only several times faster than with the most compatible aluminum alloys. This alloy is durable and easily accessible, while the most compatible alloys have insufficient strength. Open purely aluminum surfaces (i.e. al-6061-t6) are saved for many months upon contact with peroxide. This is despite the fact that water, for example, oxidizes aluminum.

Contrary to historically established recommendations, complex cleaning operations that use harmful to health cleaners are not necessary for most applications. Most parts of the devices used in this work with concentrated peroxide were simply washed off with water with washing powder at 110f. Preliminary results show that such an approach is almost the same nice resultsas recommended cleaning procedures. In particular, the washing of the vessel from PVDF during the day with 35% nitric acid reduces the decomposition rate of only 20% for a 6-month period.

It is easy to calculate that the decomposition of one percent of the peroxide contained in the closed vessel with 10% free volume, raises the pressure to almost 600psi (pounds per square inch, i.e. approximately 40 atmospheres). This number shows that reducing the efficiency of peroxide with a decrease in its concentration is significantly less important than security considerations during storage.

Planning space flights using concentrated peroxide requires a comprehensive consideration of the possible need to reset the pressure by ventilation of the tanks. If the operation of the motor system begins for days or weeks from the start of the start, the empty volume of the tanks can immediately grow several times. For such satellites, it makes sense to make all-metal tanks. Storage period, of course, includes the time assigned to the assuction.

Unfortunately, formal rules for working with fuel, which were developed taking into account the use of highly toxic components, usually prohibit automatic ventilation systems on the Flight Equipment. Commonly used dear systems Pressure tracking. The idea of \u200b\u200bimproving safety by the prohibition of ventilation valves contradicts the normal "earthly" practice when working with liquid pressure systems. This question may have to have to revise depending on which the carrier rocket is used when starting.

If necessary, the decomposition of peroxide can be maintained at 1% per year or lower. In addition to compatibility with tank materials, the decomposition coefficient is highly dependent on temperature. It may be possible to store peroxide indefinitely in space flights if it is possible to freeze. The peroxide is not expanding during freezing and does not create threats for valves and pipes, as it happens with water.

Since the peroxide decomposes on the surfaces, an increase in the volume ratio to the surface can increase the shelf life. Comparative analysis With samples of 5 cubic meters. See and 300 cubic meters. cm confirm this conclusion. One experiment with 85% peroxide in 300 cu containers. See, made from PVDF, showed the decomposition coefficient at 70f (21c) 0.05% per week, or 2.5% per year. Extrapolation up to 10 liter tanks gives the result of about 1% per year at 20c.

In other comparative experiments using PVDF or PVDF coating on aluminum, peroxide, having 80 PPM stabilizing additives, decomposed only 30% slower than purified peroxide. This is actually good that stabilizers do not greatly increase the shelf life of peroxide in tanks with long flights. As shown in the next section, these additives are strongly interfere with the use of peroxide in engines.

Engine development

The planned microsatetter initially requires an acceleration of 0.1 g to control a mass of 20 kg, that is, about 4.4 pounds of force [approximately 20n] thrust in vacuo. Since many properties of ordinary 5-pound engines were not needed, a specialized version was developed. Numerous publications considered blocks of catalysts for use with peroxide. Mass flow for such catalysts is estimated, approximately 250 kg per square meter of catalyst per second. Sketches of bell-shaped engines used on blocks of Mercury and Centaur show that only about a quarter of it was actually used during steering efforts about 1 pound [approximately 4.5N]. For this application, a catalyst block was selected with a diameter of 9/16 inches [approximately 14 mm]. Mass flow is approximately 100 kg per square. m per second will give almost 5 pounds of thrust at a specific impulse in 140 ° C [approximately 1370 m / s].

Silver-based catalyst

Silver wire mesh and silver-covered nickel plates were widely used in the past for catalysis. Nickel wire as a base increases heat resistance (for concentrations over 90%), and more cheap for mass application. Clean silver was selected for research data to avoid the coating process of nickel, and also because the soft metal can be easily cut into strips, which are then folded into rings. In addition, the problem of surface wear can be avoided. We used easily accessible grids with 26 and 40 threads on an inch (the corresponding wire diameter of 0.012 and 0.009 inches).

The composition of the surface and the mechanism of the catalyst operation is completely unclear, as follows from a variety of inexplicable and contradictory statements in the literature. The catalytic activity of the surface of pure silver can be enhanced by the application of samarium nitrate with subsequent calcination. This substance decomposes on samarium oxide, but can also oxidize silver. Other sources in addition to this refer to the treatment of pure silver nitric acid, which dissolves silver, but also is an oxidizing agent. An even easiest way is based on the fact that a purely silver catalyst can increase its activity when used. This observation was checked and confirmed, which led to the use of a catalyst without a nitrate of Samaria.

Silver oxide (AG2O) has a brownish-black color, and silver peroxide (AG2O2) has a gray-black color. These colors appeared one after another, showing that silver gradually oxidized more and more. The youngest color corresponded to the best action of the catalyst. In addition, the surface was increasingly uneven compared to the "fresh" silver when analyzing under a microscope.

A simple method for checking the activity of the catalyst was found. Separate mugs of the silver mesh (diameter 9/16 inch [approximately 14 mm] were superimposed on drops of peroxide on the steel surface. Only purchased silver grid caused a slow "hiss". The most active catalyst is repeatedly (10 times) caused a steam stream for 1 second.

This study does not prove that oxidized silver is a catalyst, or that the observed darkening is mainly due to oxidation. The mention is also worth mentioning that both silver oxide are known to decompose with relatively low temperatures. Excess oxygen during engine operation, however, can shift the reaction equilibrium. Attempts to experimentally find out the importance of oxidation and irregularities of the surface of the unequivocal result did not give. Attempts included an analysis of the surface using an X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (X-Ray PhotooElectron Spectroscopy, XPS), also known as an electronic spectroscopic chemical analyzer (Electron Spectroscopy Chemical Analysis, ESCA). Attempts were also made to eliminate the likelihood of surface pollution in freshly pulled silver grids, which worsened catalytic activity.

Independent checks have shown that neither the Nitrate of Samaria nor its solid decomposition product (which is probably oxide) does not catalyze the decomposition of peroxide. It may mean that samarium nitrate treatment can work by oxidation of silver. However, there is also a version (without a scientific justification) that the treatment of samarium nitrate prevents the adhesion of bubbles of gaseous decomposition products to the surface of the catalyst. In the present work, ultimately, the development of light engines was considered more important than the solution of the Catalysis puzzles.

Engine scheme

Traditionally, steel welded construction is used for peroxidary engines. Higher than steel, the coefficient of thermal expansion of silver leads to the compression of the silver catalyst package when heated, after which the slots between the package and the walls of the chamber appear after cooling. In order for the liquid peroxide to circumvent the mesh of the catalyst for these slots, the annular seals between the grids are usually used.

Instead, in this paper, quite good results were obtained using the engine cameras made from bronze (Copper alloy C36000) on the lathe. Bronze is easily processed, and in addition, its thermal expansion coefficient is close to the silver coefficient. At the decomposition temperature of 85% peroxide, about 1200F [approximately 650c], the bronze has excellent strength. This relatively low temperature also allows you to use an aluminum injector.

Such a choice of easily processed materials and peroxide concentrations, easily achievable in laboratory conditions, is a rather successful combination for experiments. Note that the use of 100% peroxide would lead to the melting of both the catalyst and the walls of the chamber. The resulting choice is a compromise between price and efficiency. It is worth noting that the bronze chambers are used on the RD-107 and RD-108 engines applied on such a successful carrier as an alliance.

In fig. 3 shows a light engine variant that screws itself directly to the base of the liquid valve of a small maneuvering machine. Left - 4 gram aluminum injector with fluoroalastomer seal. The 25-gram silver catalyst is divided to be able to show it from different sides. Right - 2-gram plate supporting the catalyst grid. Full mass Parts shown in the figure - approximately 80 grams. One of these engines was used for terrestrial controls of the 25-kilogram research apparatus. The system worked in accordance with the design, including the use of 3.5 kilograms of peroxide without a visible loss of quality.

150-gram commercially available solenoid valve of direct action, having a 1.2 mm hole and a 25-ohm coil controlled by a 12 volt source showed satisfactory results. The surface of the valve coming into contact with the liquid consists of stainless steel, aluminum and witon. The full mass is favorably different from mass over 600 grams for a 3-pound [approximately 13n] engine used to maintain the orientation of the Centaurian stage until 1984.

Engine testing

The engine designed to carry out experiments was somewhat heavier than the final so that it was possible to test, for example, the effect of more catalyst. The nozzle was screwed to the engine separately, which made it possible to customize the catalyst in size, adjusting the force of tightening the bolts. Slightly above the flow nozzles were connectors for pressure sensors and gas temperature.

Fig. 4 shows the installation ready for the experiment. Direct experiments in laboratory conditions are possible due to the use of sufficiently harmless fuel, low rod values, operation under normal indoor conditions and atmospheric pressure, and applying simple devices. The protective walls of the installation are made of polycarbonate sheets of thicknesses in half: approximately 12 mm], which are installed on the aluminum frame, in good ventilation. The panels were tested for a flushing force in 365.000 N * C / m ^ 2. For example, a fragment of 100 grams, moving with a supersonic speed of 365 m / s, stop if the stroke of 1 kV. cm.

In the photo, the engine camera is oriented vertically, just below the exhaust pipe. Pressure sensors at the inlet in the injector and pressure inside the chamber are located on the platform of the scales that measure the craving. Digital performance and temperature indicators are outside the installation walls. The opening of the main valve includes a small array of indicators. Data recording is carried out by installing all indicators in the visibility field of the camcorder. The final measurements were carried out using a heat-sensitive chalk, which conducted a line along the length of the Catalysis chamber. Color change corresponded to temperatures above 800 F [approximately 430c].

The capacitance with concentrated peroxide is located on the left of the scales on a separate support, so that the change in the mass of the fuel does not affect the measurement of the thrust. With the help of reference weights, it was checked that the tubes, bringing peroxide to the chamber, are quite flexible to achieve measurement accuracy within 0.01 pounds [approximately 0.04n]. The peroxide capacitance was made of a large polycarbonate pipe and is calibrated so that the change in the level of the fluid can be used to calculate the UI.

Engine parameters

The experimental engine was repeatedly tested during 1997. Early runs used limiting injector and small critical section size, at very low pressures. The engine efficiency, as it turned out, strongly correlated with the activity of the used single-layer catalyst. After achieving reliable decomposition, the pressure in the tank was recorded at 300 psig [approximately 2.1 MPa]. All experiments were carried out at the initial temperature of equipment and fuel in 70f [approximately 21c].

The initial short-term launch was carried out to avoid a "wet" start at which a visible exhaust appeared. Typically, the initial start was carried out within 5 s at consumption<50%, но вполне хватало бы и 2 с. Затем шёл основной прогон в течение 5-10 с, достаточных для полного прогрева двигателя. Результаты показывали температуру газа в 1150F , что находится в пределах 50F от теоретического значения. 10-секундные прогоны при постоянных условиях использовались для вычисления УИ. Удельный импульс оказывался равным 100 с , что, вероятно, может быть улучшено при использовании более оптимальной формы сопла, и, особенно, при работе в вакууме.

The length of the silver catalyst was successfully reduced from a conservative 2.5 inches [approximately 64 mm to 1.7 inches [approximately 43 mm]. The final engine scheme had 9 holes with a diameter of 1/64 inches [approximately 0.4 mm] in a flat surface of the injector. The critical section of the size of 1/8 inches made it possible to obtain a 3.3 pound of force of force at a pressure in the PSIG chamber 220 and the pressure difference 255 PSIG between the valve and the critical section.

Distilled fuel (Table 1) gave stable results and stable pressure measurements. After a run of 3 kg of fuel and 10 starts, a point with a temperature of 800F was on the chamber at a distance of 1/4 inches from the surface of the injector. At the same time, for comparison, the engine performance time at 80 ppm impurities was unacceptable. Pressure fluctuations in the chamber at a frequency of 2 Hz reached a value of 10% after spending only 0.5 kg of fuel. The temperature point is 800F departed over 1 inches from the injector.

A few minutes in 10% nitric acid restored a catalyst to a good condition. Despite the fact that, together with pollution, a certain amount of silver was dissolved, the catalyst activity was better than after the nitric acid treatment of a new, not used catalyst.

It should be noted that, although the engine warming time is calculated by seconds, significantly shorter emissions are possible if the engine is already heated. The dynamic response of the liquid subsystem of traction weighing 5 kg on the linear portion showed the pulse time in short, than in 100 ms, with a transmitted pulse about 1 H * p. In particular, the offset was approximately +/- 6 mm at a frequency of 3 Hz, with a limitation set by the system speed system.

Options for building Du

In fig. 5 shows some of the possible motor circuits, although, of course, not all. All liquid schemes are suitable for the use of peroxide, and each can also be used for a two-component engine. The top row lists the schemes commonly used on satellites with traditional fuel components. The average number indicates how to use systems on a compressed gas for orientation tasks. More complex schemes that allow potentially achieve a smaller weight of the equipment, shown in the lower row. The walls of the tanks schematically show different levels of pressure typical for each system. We also note the difference between the designations for the EDD and Du working on compressed gas.

Traditional schemes

Option A was used on some of the smallest satellites due to its simplicity, and also because systems on compressed gas (valves with nozzles) can be very easy and small. This option was also used on large spacecraft, for example, a nitrogen system for maintaining the orientation of the Skylab station in the 1970s.

Embodiment B is the simplest liquid scheme, and was repeatedly tested in flights with hydrazine as fuel. Gas supporting pressure in the tank usually takes a quarter of a tank during start. Gas gradually expands during the flight, so they say that the pressure "blows out". However, the pressure drop reduces both cravings and ui. The maximum fluid pressure in the tank takes place during the launch, which increases the mass of the tanks for security reasons. A recent example is the device of Lunar Prospector, which had about 130 kg of hydrazine and 25 kg of weight of the Du.

The variant C is widely used with traditional poisonous single-component and two-component fuels. For the smallest satellites, it is necessary to add Du on compressed gas to maintain the orientation, as described above. For example, the addition of Du on a compressed gas to the variant C leads to option D. Motor systems of this type, working on nitrogen and concentrated peroxide, were built in the Laurenov Laboratory (LLNL) so that you can safely experience the orientation systems of microsteps prototypes operating on non-fuels .

Maintaining orientation with hot gases

For the smallest satellites to reduce the supply of compressed gas and tanks, it makes sense to make a system of orientation system running on hot gases. At the level of thrust less than 1 pound of force [approximately 4.5, the existing systems on compressed gas are lighter than one-component EDD, an order of magnitude (Fig. 1). Controlling the flow of gas, smaller pulses can be obtained than controlling the fluid. However, to have compressed inert gas on board ineffectively due to the large volume and mass of tanks under pressure. For these reasons, I would like to generate gas to maintain orientation from the liquid as the satellite sizes decrease. In space, this option has not yet been used, but in the laboratory version E was tested using hydrazine, as noted above (3). The level of miniaturization of the components was very impressive.

To further reduce the mass of the equipment and simplify the storage system, it is desirable to generally avoid gas storage capacities. Option F is potentially interesting for miniature systems on peroxide. If prior to the start of work, a long-term storage of fuel in orbit is required, the system can start without initial pressure. Depending on the free space in the tanks, the size of the tanks and their material, the system can be calculated for pumping pressure at a predetermined moment in flight.

In version D, there are two independent fuel sources, to maneuvering and maintaining the orientation, which makes it separately to take into account the flow rate for each of these functions. E and F systems that produce hot gas to maintain fuel orientation used for maneuvering have greater flexibility. For example, unused when maneuvering fuel can be used to extend the life of the satellite, which needs to maintain its orientation.

Ideas Samonaduva

Only more complex options in the last row. 5 can do without a gas storage tank and at the same time provide constant pressure as fuel consumption. They can be launched without the initial pump, or low pressure, which reduces the mass of the tanks. The absence of compressed gases and pressure fluids reduces hazards at the start. This can lead to significant reductions in value to the extent that the standard purchased equipment is considered to be safe for working with low pressures and not too poisonous components. All engines in these systems use a single tank with fuel, which ensures maximum flexibility.

Variants G and H can be called liquid systems of "hot gas under pressure", or "blow-up", as well as "gas from liquid" or "self-trunk". For controlled supervision of the tank, the spent fuel is required to increase the pressure.

Embodiment G uses a tank with a membrane deflected by pressure, so first the fluid pressure above the gas pressure. This can be achieved using a differential valve or an elastic diaphragm that shares gas and liquid. Acceleration can also be used, i.e. Gravity in ground applications or centrifugal force in a rotating spacecraft. Option H is working with any tank. A special pump for maintaining pressure provides circulation through a gas generator and back to a free volume in the tank.

In both cases, the liquid controller prevents the appearance of feedback and the occurrence of arbitrarily greater pressures. For normal operation of the system, an additional valve is included in sequentially with the regulator. In the future, it can be used to control the pressure in the system within the pressure of the regulator being installed. For example, maneuvers on the change of orbit will be made under full pressure. The reduced pressure will allow to achieve a more accurate maintenance of orientation of 3 axes, while maintaining fuel to extend the service life of the device (see Appendix).

Over the years, experiments with pumps of difference area were carried out both in pumps and in tanks, and there are many documents describing such structures. In 1932, Robert H. Goddard and others built a pump driven by a machine to control liquid and gaseous nitrogen. Several attempts were made between 1950 and 1970, in which the options G and H were considered for atmospheric flights. These attempts to reduce volume were carried out in order to reduce windshield resistance. These works were subsequently discontinued with the widespread development of solid fuel missiles. Working on self-adequate systems and differential valves were performed relatively recently, with some innovations for specific applications.

Liquid fuel storage systems with self-ads were not considered seriously for long-term flights. There are several technical reasons why in order to develop a successful system, it is necessary to ensure well predictable properties of thrust during the entire service life of the Du. For example, a catalyst suspended in a gas supply gas can decompose fuel inside the tank. It will require the separation of tanks, as in the version G, to achieve performance in flights that require a long period of rest after the initial maneuvering.

The working cycle of thrust is also important from thermal considerations. In fig. 5G and 5H The heat released during the reaction in the gas generator is lost in the surrounding parts in the process of long flight with rare inclusions of the Du. This corresponds to the use of soft seals for hot gas systems. High-temperature metal seals have a greater leakage, but they will only be needed if the working cycle is intense. Questions about the thickness of thermal insulation and heat capacity of the components should be considered, well representing the intended nature of the work of the Du during the flight.

Pumping engines

In fig. 5j Pump supplies fuel from low pressure tank into high-pressure engine. This approach gives maximum maneuverity, and is standard for stages of carrier launchiers. Both the speed of the device and its acceleration can be large, since neither the engine nor the fuel tank is especially heavy. The pump must be designed for a very high energy ratio to mass to justify its application.

Although fig. 5J is somewhat simplified, it is included here in order to show that this is a completely different option than H. In the latter case, the pump is used as an auxiliary mechanism, and the pump requirements differ from the engine pump.

Work continues, including testing rocket engines operating at concentrated peroxide and using pumping units. It is possible that easily repeated inexpensive tests of engines using non-toxic fuel will allow achieving even simpler and reliable schemes than previously achieved when using pumping hydrazine developments.

Prototype self-adhesive system tank

Although work continues on the implementation of the schemes H and J in Fig. 5, the easiest option is G, and he was tested first. The necessary equipment is somewhat different, but the development of similar technologies mutually enhances the development effect. For example, the temperature and service life of fluoroelastomer seals, fluorine-containing lubricants and aluminum alloys is directly related to all three concept concepts.

Fig. 6 depicts inexpensive test equipment that uses a differential valve pump made from a segment of an aluminum pipe with a diameter of 3 inches [approximately 75 mm with a wall thickness of 0.065 inches [approximately 1.7 mm], squeezed at the ends between sealing rings. Welding here is missing, which simplifies the system check after testing, changing the system configuration, and also reduces the cost.

This system with self-adequate concentrated peroxide was tested using solenoid valves available on sale, and inexpensive tools, as in engine development. An exemplary system diagram is shown in Fig. 7. In addition to the thermocouple immersed in gas, the temperature also measured on the tank and the gas generator.

The tank is designed so that the pressure of the liquid in it is a little higher than the pressure of the gas (???). Numerous starts were carried out using the initial air pressure of 30 psig [approximately 200 kPa]. When the control valve opens, the flow through the gas generator supplies steam and oxygen into the pressure maintenance channel in the tank. The first order of positive feedback of the system leads to exponential pressure growth until the liquid controller is closed when 300 psi is reached [Approximately 2 MPa].

Input sensitivity is invalid for gas pressure regulators, which are currently used on satellites (Fig. 5a and C). In the fluid system with self-admiration, the regulator's input pressure remains in the narrow range. Thus, it is possible to avoid many difficulties inherent in conventional regulators schemes used in the aerospace industry. A regulator weighing 60 grams has only 4 moving parts, not counting springs, seals and screws. The regulator has a flexible seal for closing when the pressure is exceeded. This simple axisymmetric diagram is sufficient due to the fact that it is not necessary to maintain the pressure at certain limits at the entrance to the regulator.

The gas generator is also simplified thanks to the low requirements for the system as a whole. When the pressure difference in 10 PSI, the fuel flow is sufficiently small, which allows the use of the simplest injectors schemes. In addition, the absence of a safety valve at the inlet in the gas generator leads only to small vibrations of about 1 Hz in the decomposition reaction. Accordingly, a relatively small reverse flow during the start of the system starts the regulator not higher than 100F.

Initial tests did not use the regulator; In this case, it was shown that the pressure in the system can be maintained by any in the limits of the compactor allowed by friction to the safe pressure limiter in the system. Such flexibility of the system can be used to reduce the required orientation system for most of the satellite service life, for the reasons specified above.

One of the observations that seem to be apparent later was that the tank is heated stronger if low-frequency pressure fluctuations occur in the system during control without using the regulator. Safety valve at the entrance to the tank, where compressed gas is supplied, could eliminate the additional heat flow occurring due to pressure fluctuations. This valve would also not give Baku to accumulate pressure, but it is not necessarily important.

Although the aluminum parts are melted at a decomposition temperature of 85% peroxide, the temperature is somewhat slightly due to the loss of heat and the intermittent gas flow. The tank shown in the photo had a temperature noticeably below 200f during testing with pressure maintenance. At the same time, the gas temperature at the outlet exceeded 400F during a rather energetic switching of a warm gas valve.

The gas temperature at the output is important because it shows that water remains in a state of superheated steam inside the system. The range from 400F to 600F looks perfect, as this is cold enough for cheap light equipment (aluminum and soft seals), and heat enough to obtain a significant part of the fuel energy used to support the orientation of the apparatus using gas jets. During periods of work under reduced pressure, an additional advantage is that the minimum temperature. Required to avoid moisture condensation, also decreases.

To work as long as possible in the permissible temperature limits, such parameters such as the thickness of the thermal insulation and the overall heat capacity of the design must be customized for a specific traction profile. As expected, after testing in the tank, the condensed water was discovered, but this unused mass is a small part of the total fuel mass. Even if all the water from the gas flow used for the orientation of the apparatus is condensed, any equal to 40% of the mass of the fuel will be gaseous (for 85% peroxide). Even this option is better than using compressed nitrogen, as water is easier than the dear modern nitrogen tank.

Test equipment shown in Fig. 6, obviously, far from being called a complete traction system. Liquid motors of an approximately the same type as described in this article may, for example, are connected to the output tank connector, as shown in Fig. 5G.

Plans for Supervising the Pump

To verify the concept shown in Fig. 5H, there is a development of a reliable pump operating on gas. Unlike tank with adjustment by pressure difference, the pump must be filled with many times during operation. This means that liquid safety valves will be required, as well as automatic gas valves for gas emissions at the end of the working stroke and the increase in pressure is again.

It is planned to use a pair of pumping chambers that work alternately, instead of the minimum necessary single camera. This will ensure the permanent job of the orientation subsystem on warm gas at constant pressure. The task is to pick up the tank to reduce the mass of the system. The pump will work on the gas parts of the gas generator.

Discussion

The lack of suitable options for small satellites is not news, and there are several options (20) to solve this problem. A better understanding of the problems associated with the development of Du, among the customers of the systems will help to solve this problem better, and the best understanding of the problems of the satellites is naply for engine developers.

This article addressed the possibility of using hydrogen peroxide using low-cost materials and techniques applicable in small scales. The results obtained can also be applied to the Du on a single-component hydrazine, as well as in cases where the peroxide can serve as an oxidizing agent in unseated two-component combinations. The latter option includes self-flameless alcohol fuels, described in (6), as well as liquid and solid hydrocarbons, which are flammable when contact with hot oxygen, resulting in decomposition of concentrated peroxide.

Relatively simple technology with peroxide, described in this article, can be directly used in experimental spacecraft and other small satellites. Just one generation back low near-earth orbits and even deep space were studied using actually new and experimental technologies. For example, the Lunar Sirewiper planting system included numerous soft seals, which can be considered unacceptable today, but were quite adequate to the tasks. Currently, many scientific tools and electronics are highly miniaturized, but the technology of the Du does not meet the requests of small satellites or small lunar landing probes.

The idea is that custom equipment can be designed for specific applications. This, of course, contradicts the idea of \u200b\u200b"inheritance" technologies, which usually prevails when selecting satellite subsystems. The base for this opinion is the assumption that the details of the processes are not well studied well to develop and launch completely new systems. This article was caused by the opinion that the possibility of frequent inexpensive experiments will allow to give the necessary knowledge to the designers of small satellites. Together with the understanding of both the needs of satellites and the capabilities of the technole, the potential reduction of unnecessary requirements for the system comes.

Thanks

Many people helped to acquaint the author with rocket technology based on hydrogen peroxide. Among them Fred Oldridge, Kevin Bolinerger, Mitchell Clapp, Tony Ferion, George Garboden, Ron Humble, Jordin Kare, Andrew Kyubika, Tim Lawrence, Martin Minor, Malcolm Paul, Jeff Robinson, John Rozek, Jerry Sanders, Jerry Sellers and Mark Ventura.

The study was part of the Clementine-2 program and microsatellite technologies in Laureren's laboratory, with the support of the US Air Force Research Laboratory. This work used the US government funds and was held at the Louuren's National Laboratory in Livermore, the University of California as part of the W-7405-ENG-48 contract with the US Department of Energy.

Reactive "Comet" of the Third Reich

However, Crigismarine was not the only organization that appealing to the turbine Helmut Walter. She intently became interested in the department of German Gering. As in any other, and this has been its beginning. And it is connected with the name of the employee of the Messerschmitt officer Alexander Lippisch, an ardent supporter of the unusual designs of aircraft. Not inclined to take generally accepted decisions and opinions on faith, he began to create a fundamentally new aircraft in which he saw everything in a new way. According to his concept, the aircraft must be easy, possess as little as possible mechanisms and auxiliary units, to have a rational in the point of view of creating a lifting force form and the most powerful engine.

The traditional piston engine Lippisch was not satisfied, and he turned his eyes to reactive, more precisely - to rocket. But all those known by the time the system of support with their cumbersome and heavy pumps, tanks, hilt and adjustment systems also did not suit it. So gradually crystallized the idea of \u200b\u200busing self-ignorant fuel. Then on board you can only place fuel and oxidizing agent, create the most simple two-component pump and combustion chamber with a reactive nozzle.

In this matter, Lippishu was lucky. And lucky twice. First, such an engine already existed - the same Valter turbine. Secondly, the first flight with this engine was already made in the summer of 1939 by the non-176 plane. Despite the fact that the results obtained, to put it mildly, did not impressive - the maximum speed that this aircraft reached the engine after 50 seconds was only 345 km / h, the Luftwaffe management counted this direction is quite promising. The reason for low speed they saw in the traditional layout of the aircraft and decided to test their assumptions on the "Neuthest" Lippisch. So the Messerschmittovsky Novator received at his disposal a glider DFS-40 and the RI-203 engine.

To power the engine was used (all very secret!) Two-component fuel consisting of T-STOFF and C-STOFF. Overland ciphers were hidden than the same hydrogen peroxide and fuel - a mixture of 30% hydrazine, 57% methanol and 13% water. The solution of the catalyst was named Z-STOFF. Despite the presence of three solutions, the fuel was considered two-component: a catalyst solution for some reason was not considered a component.

Soon the fairy tale affects, but no sooner is done. This Russian saying is how it is impossible to better describe the history of the creation of a missile fighter-interceptor. Layout, development of new engines, jetty, training of pilots - All this has delayed the process of creating a full-fledged machine until 1943. As a result, the combat version of the aircraft - M-163B - was a completely independent machine inherited from the predecessors only the base layout. The small size of the glider did not leave the space designers not to retractable chassis, none of the spacious cabin.

All space occupied fuel tanks and a rocket engine itself. And with him, too, everything was "not than glory to God." HA "Helmut Walter Veerke" calculated that the RII-211 RII-211 missile engine will have a thrust of 1,700 kg, and the fuel consumption of the total rush will be somewhere 3 kg per second. By the time of these calculations, the engine RII-211 existed only in the form of a layout. Three consecutive runs on Earth were unsuccessful. The engine is more or less managed to bring to the flight state only in the summer of 1943, but even then he was still considered experimental. And experiments again showed that the theory and practice often diverge with each other: fuel consumption was significantly higher than the calculated - 5 kg / s per maximum thrust. So Me-163V had a fuel reserve only six minutes of the flight on the full rift of the engine. At the same time, its resource was 2 hours of operation, which was on average about 20 - 30 departures. The incredible voyage of the turbine completely changed the tactics of the use of these fighters: take off, a set of height, entering the target, one attack, exit from the attack, return home (often, in a glider mode, as the fuel is no longer left). It was simply not necessary to talk about air battles, the entire calculation was on rapidness and superiority at speed. Confidence in the success of the attack was added and solid weapons "Comet": two 30 mm guns, plus the armored cabin of the pilot.

About problems that accompanied the creation of an aviation version of the engine Walter can say at least these two dates: the first flight of the experimental sample took place in 1941; The me-163 was adopted in 1944. Distance, as said one unsolving Griboedovsky character, a huge scale. And this is despite the fact that designers and developers did not spit into the ceiling.

At the end of 1944, the Germans made an attempt to improve the aircraft. To increase the duration of the flight, the engine was equipped with an auxiliary combustion chamber for flight on cruising mode with a reduced burden, increased fuel reserve, instead of a separate trolley installed a conventional wheel chassis. Until the end of the war, it was possible to build and test only one sample, which received the designation of Me-263.

Toothless "violet"

The impotence of the "Milestone Reich" before attacks from the air forced to look for any, sometimes the most incredible ways to counter carpet bombing of the allies. The task of the author does not include the analysis of all the wickers, with the help of which Hitler hoped to make a miracle and save if neither Germany, then himself from an imminent death. I will dwell on the same "invention" - the vertically-taking interceptor of the VA-349 "NATTER" ("Gadyuk"). This miracle of hostile technique was created as a cheap alternative to M-163 "Comet" with a focus on the mass production and the casting of materials. Its production provided for the use of the most affordable varieties of wood and metal.

In this brainchild, Erich Bachema, everything was known and everything was unusual. The takeoff was planned to exercise vertically as a rocket, with four powder accelerators installed on the sides of the rear of the fuselage. At an altitude of 150 m, the spent rockets were dropped and the flight continued at the expense of the main engine - the LDD Walter 109-509a is a certain prototype of two-stage missiles (or rockets with solid fuel accelerators). Guidance on the target was carried out first by automatically on the radio, and by the pilot by the pilot. No less unusual was the armament: approaching the goal, the pilot gave a volley from twenty-four,73-mm reactive shells installed under the fairing of the aircraft's nose. Then he had to separate the front of the fuselage and descend with parachute to the ground. The engine was also to be reset with parachute so that it could be reused. If desired, this can be seen in this and the "Shuttle" type is a modular aircraft with an independent return home.

Usually in this place they say that this project was ahead of the technical capabilities of the German industry, which explains the catastrophe of the first instance. But, in spite of such an in the literal sense of a word, the construction of another 36 "Hatters" was completed, of which 25 were tested, and only 7 in the piloted flight. In April 10 "Hatters" of the A-series (and who only counted on the next?) Were taken from Kiromem under Stildgart, to reflect the raids of American bomber. But the bashhema batch did not give the allies tanks, which they waited before bombers. "Hatter" and their launchers were destroyed by their own calculations. So argue after that, with the opinion that the best air defense is our tanks on their airfields.

Still, the attraction of the EDD was huge. So huge that Japan bought a license to produce a rocket fighter. Her problems with US aircraft were akin to German, because it is not surprising that they turned to the allies. Two submarines with technical documentation and equipment samples were sent to the shores of the Empire, but one of them was sweeping during the transition. The Japanese on their own restored the missing information and Mitsubishi built an experimental sample J8M1. In the first flight, on July 7, 1945, he crashed due to the refusal of the engine at a height set, after which the topic was safely and quietly died.

In order to reader, the reader did not have the opinion that instead of the inspired fruits, the distance of hydrogen brought its apologists only disappointment, I will bring an example, obviously, the only case when it was a sense. And it was received precisely when the designer did not try to squeeze the last drops of possibilities from it. We are talking about a modest, but necessary detail: a turbochargeable unit for feeding the fuel components in the Rocket A-4 (Fow-2). Serve the fuel (liquid oxygen and alcohol) by creating an overpressure in the tanks for the rocket of this class was impossible, but a small and light gas turbine at hydrogen peroxide and permanganate created a sufficient number of parogas to rotate the centrifugal pump.

Schematic diagram of the engine Rocket "Fau-2" 1 - tank with hydrogen peroxide; 2 - tank with sodium permanganate (catalyst for decomposition of hydrogen peroxide); 3 - cylinders with compressed air; 4 - steamer; 5 - turbine; 6 - exhaust pipe of the spent vapor; 7 - fuel pump; 8 - oxidizer pump; 9 - gearbox; 10 - oxygen supply pipelines; 11 - Camera combustion; 12 - Forkamera

Turbosas aggregate, steam-poase generator for a turbine and two small tanks for hydrogen peroxide and potassium permanganate were placed in one compartment with a propulsion unit. The spent parogase, passing through the turbine, still remained hot and could make additional work. Therefore, he was directed to the heat exchanger, where he heated a certain amount of liquid oxygen. By turning back to the tank, this oxygen created there a small prediment, that somewhat facilitated the operation of the turbosate unit and at the same time warned flattening the walls of the tank when it became empty.

The use of hydrogen peroxide was not the only possible solution: it was possible to use the main components, feeding them into the gas generator in the ratio, far from optimal, and thereby ensuring a decrease in the temperature of combustion products. But in this case it would be necessary to solve a number of complex problems associated with ensuring reliable ignition and maintain stable burning of these components. The use of hydrogen peroxide in the middle concentration (here the exhaust capacity was for nothing) allowed to solve the problem simply and quickly. So a compact and uniform mechanism forced to fight the deadly heart of a rocket stuffed with a ton explosive.

Blow from depth

The name of the book of Z. Pearl, as it is thought to be the author, as it is impossible to suit the name and this chapter. Without seeking a claim for the truth in the last instance, I still allow myself to say that there is nothing terrible than the sudden and practically inevitable blow to the board of two or three centners of TNT, from which the bulkheads are bursting, the steel is burned and flourished with multi-torque mechanisms. The roar and whistle of the burning couple becomes a requiem ship, which in cramps and convulsions goes under the water, having taken with me to the kingdom of Neptune of those unfortunate who did not have time to jump into the water and saved away from the sinking vessel. And a quiet and imperceptible, similar to the insulatory shark, the submarine slowly dissolved in the sea depth, carried in its steel womb of a dozen of the same deadly hotels.

The idea of \u200b\u200ba self-applied miner, capable of combining the speed of the ship and the gigantic explosive force of the Anchor "Flyer", appeared quite a long time. But in the metal, it was realized only when there were enough compact and powerful engines that have reported to it a great speed. Torpeda is not a submarine, but also its engine is also needed fuel and oxidizer ...

Torped-killer ...

It is so called the legendary 65-76 "KIT" after the tragic events of August 2000. The official version states that the spontaneous explosion of "Tolstoy Torpeda" caused the death of a submarine K-141 Kursk. At first glance, the version, at a minimum, deserves attention: Torpeda 65-76 - not at all children's rattle. This is dangerous, the appeal to which requires special skills.

One of the "weaknesses" torpedoes was called its propulsion - the impressive shooting range was achieved using the propulsion at the hydrogen peroxide. And this means the presence of an entirely familiar bouquet of charms: giant pressure, rapidly reacting components and the potential opportunity to start an involuntary explosive response. As an argument, supporters of the explosion version of the "Tolstoy Torpeda" leads such a fact that all "civilized" countries of the world refused from the torpedo at hydrogen peroxide.

Traditionally, the oxidizer reserve for the torpedo engine was a balloon with air, the amount of which was determined by the power of the unit and the distance of the stroke. The disadvantage is obvious: the ballast weight of a thick-walled cylinder, which could be reversed for anything more useful. To store air pressure up to 200 kgf / cm² (196 GPa), thick-walled steel tanks are required, the mass of which exceeds the mass of all energy components by 2.5 - 3 times. The latter accounts for only about 12 - 15% of the total mass. For the operation of the ESU, a large amount of fresh water is necessary (22-6% of the mass of energy components), which limits the reserves of fuel and oxidizing agent. In addition, compressed air (21% oxygen) is not the most efficient oxidizing agent. The nitrogen present in the air is also not just ballast: it is very poorly soluble in water and therefore it creates a well-noticeable bubble mark 1 - 2 m wide for a torpedo. However, such torpedo had no less obvious advantages that were a continuation of the shortcomings, most importantly of which are high security. Torpedes operating on pure oxygen (liquid or gaseous) were more effective. They significantly reduced the tracks, increased the efficiency of the oxidant, but did not solve the problems with the milking (the balloon and cryogenic equipment still constituted a significant part of the weight of the torpedo).

Hydrogen peroxide in this case was a kind of antipode: with significantly higher energy characteristics, it was the source of increased danger. When replaced in the air thermal torpedo of compressed air to an equivalent amount of hydrogen peroxide, its range has managed to increase 3 times. The table below shows the efficiency of using various types of applied and promising energy carriers in Esu Torpeda:

In Esu Torpeda, everything occurs in the traditional way: the peroxide is decomposed on water and oxygen, oxygen oxidizes fuel (kerosene), the received steamer rotates the turbine shaft - and here the deadly cargo rushes towards the ship.

Torpeda 65-76 "KIT" is the last Soviet development of this type, the beginning of which put in 1947 the study of the German torpedoes not brought to the "to mind" in the Lomonosov branch of the NII-400 (later "Mortheterery") under the leadership of the chief designer D.A . Cochenakov.

The works ended with the creation of a prototype, which was tested in Feodosia in 1954-55. During this time, the Soviet designers and Materialists had to develop the mechanisms unknown to them until the mechanisms, to understand the principles and thermodynamics of their work, to adapt them for compact use in the body of the Torpeda (one of the designer somehow said that the complexity of torpedoes and cosmic missiles are approaching the clock ). As an engine, a high-speed turbine of an open type of own development was used. This unit spoke a lot of blood to its creators: problems with the sorceration of the combustion chamber, searching for the storage capacity of peroxide, the development of the fuel component regulator (kerosene, low-water hydrogen peroxide (concentration 85%), sea water) - All this has been tested and tested to the torpedoes before 1957 This year, the fleet received the first torpedo at hydrogen peroxide 53-57 (According to some data, it had the name "Alligator", but perhaps it was the name of the project).

In 1962, the anti-religious self-equipped torpedo was adopted 53-61 created on the basis of 53-57 and 53-61m with an improved homing system.

Torped developers paid attention not only to their electronic stuffing, but did not forget about her heart. And it was, as we remember, quite capricious. To increase the stability of work while increasing the capacity, a new turbine was developed with two combustion chambers. Together with the new filling of the homing, she received an index 53-65. Another engine modernization with an increase in its reliability gave a ticket to the life of modification 53-65m.

The beginning of the 70s was marked by the development of compact nuclear ammunition, which could be installed in the BC torpedo. For such a torpedo, the symbiosis of powerful explosives and a high-speed turbine was quite obvious and in 1973 unmanaged peroxidant torpedo was adopted 65-73 With a nuclear warhead, designed to destroy large surface ships, its groupings and coastal objects. However, the sailors were not only interested in such purposes (and most likely - not at all) and after three years she received an acoustic guidance system for a brilvater trail, an electromagnetic fuse and an index 65-76. The BC also became more universal: it could be both nuclear and carry 500 kg of ordinary trout.

And now the author would like to pay a few words to the thesis about the "bearing" of countries having torpedoes on hydrogen peroxide. First, in addition to the USSR / Russia, they are in service with some other countries, for example, a Swedish heavy torpedo TR613, which has developed in 1984, operating on a mixture of hydrogen peroxide and ethanol, is still in service with Navy of Sweden and Norway. The head in the FFV TP61 series, Torpeda TP61 was commissioned in 1967 as a heavy controlled torpedo for use by surface ships, submarines and coastal batteries. The main energy installation uses hydrogen peroxide with ethanol, resulting in an action of a 12-cylinder steam machine, providing a torpedo to almost complete failure. Compared to modern electric torpedoes, at a similar speed, the running distance is 3 - 5 times more. In 1984, a longer-range TP613 was admitted, replacing TP61.

But the scandinavians were not alone on this field. Prospects for the use of hydrogen peroxide in military affair were taken into account by the US Navy before 1933, and before the US joining the Warrior on the sea torpedo station in Newport, there were strictly classified work on torpedo, in which hydrogen peroxide was supplied as an oxidizing agent. In the engine, a 50% solution of hydrogen peroxide decomposes under pressure with an aqueous solution of permanganate or other oxidizing agent, and decomposition products are used to maintain the burning of alcohol - as we can see the scheme after the story. The engine was significantly improved during the war, but torpedoes leading to movement with hydrogen peroxide, until the end of hostilities did not find combat use in the US Flot.

So not only "poor countries" considered peroxide as an oxidizing agent for torpedo. Even quite respectable United States gave tribute to such a rather attractive substance. The reason for refusing to use these Esu, as it seems to the author, it was not in the cost of the development of ESU on oxygen (in the USSR, such torpedoes were also successfully applied and successfully used, which perfectly showed themselves in various conditions), and in all the same aggressiveness, danger and disrupor Hydrogen peroxide: No stabilizers guarantee a 100% guarantee of lack of decomposition processes. What it can end, tell, I think, do not ...

... and torpedo for suicides

I think that such a name for the sad and widely known controlled torpedo "Kaiten" is more than justified. Despite the fact that the leadership of the Imperial Fleet required the introduction of a evacuation hatch into the structure of "man-torpedoes", the pilots did not use them. It was not only in the samurai spirit, but also an understanding of a simple fact: to survive when an explosion in the water of a semi-trifle wip, being at a distance of 40-50 meters, it is impossible.

The first model "Kaitena" "Type-1" was created on the basis of 610 mm oxygen torpedo "Type 93" and was essentially its enlarged and habitable version, occupying a niche between the torpedo and mini-submarine. The maximum range of speed at a speed of 30 nodes was about 23 km (at the rate of 36 knots under favorable conditions, it could pass to 40 km). Created at the end of 1942, it was then not adopted on the weapon of the fleet of the rising sun.

But by the beginning of 1944, the situation has changed significantly and the project of weapons that can realize the principle "Each Torpeda - to the goal" was removed from the shelf, Gleie he dust almost a year and a half. What made the admirals change their attitude, to say it's difficult: if the letter of designers of Lieutenant Nisima Sakio and senior lieutenant of Hiroshi Cuppet, written in its own blood (Code of honor required to immediately read such a letter and providing an argued response), then a catastrophic position on the sea TVD. After small modifications "Kaiten Type 1" in March 1944 went to the series.

Man-torpedo "Kaiten": general view and device.

But in April 1944, work began on its improvement. Moreover, it was not about the modification of the existing development, but on the creation of a completely new development from scratch. It was also a tactical and technical task issued by the fleet to the new "Kaiten Type 2", included the maximum speed of at least 50 nodes, the distance of -50km, the depth of dive -270 m. Work on the design of this "man-torpedo" was charged by Nagasaki-Heiki K.K., which is part of Mitsubishi's concern.

The choice was non-random: as mentioned above, it was this firm who actively led the work on various rocket systems based on hydrogen peroxide on the basis of information received from German colleagues. The result of their work was "Engine No. 6", operating on a mixture of hydrogen peroxide and hydrazine with a capacity of 1500 hp.

By December 1944, two prototypes of the new "man-torpedo" were ready for testing. The tests were carried out on the ground stand, but the demonstrated characteristics of neither the developer nor the customer were satisfied. The customer has decided not to even start marine tests. As a result, the second "Kaiten" remained in the number of two pieces. Further modifications were developed under the oxygen engine - the military understood that even such a number of hydrogen peroxide their industry is not released.

On the effectiveness of this weapon, it is difficult to judge: the Japanese propaganda of the time of war almost every occasion of the use of "Kaitenov" attributed the death of a large American ship (after the war, conversations on this topic for obvious reasons were subsided). The Americans, on the contrary, are ready to swear on anything that their losses were meager. Will not be surprised if after a dozen years they will generally be denied those in principle.

Star hour

The works of German designers in the field of turbochargeable aggregate design for the FAu-2 missile did not remain unnoticed. All German developing armaments that have come to us have been thoroughly investigated and tested for use in domestic structures. As a result of these works, turbocharging units operating on the same principle as the German prototype appeared. American rackets naturally also applied this decision.

The British, practically lost during the Second World War all their empire, tried to cling to the remnants of the former greatness, using a full coil using a trophy heritage. Without practically no workflow in the field of rocket technology, they focused on what they had. As a result, they were almost impossible: the Black Arrow rocket, which used a pair of kerosene - hydrogen peroxide and porous silver as a catalyst provided the UK place among cosmic powers. Alas, a further continuation of the Space Program for the rapidly drastic British Empire turned out to be an extremely costly occupation.

Compact and pretty powerful peroxidant turbines were used not only for fuel supply in combustion chambers. It was applied by Americans for the orientation of the descent apparatus of the Mercury spacecraft, then with the same purpose, the Soviet constructors on the CA KK "Union".

In its energy characteristics, the peroxide as an oxidizer is inferior to liquid oxygen, but superior to nitric acid oxidizers. In recent years, interest has been reborn in the use of concentrated hydrogen peroxide as rocket fuel for engines of various scales. According to experts, the peroxide is most attractive when used in new developments, where previous technologies cannot compete directly. Such developments are the satellites weighing 5-50 kg. True, skeptics still believe that its prospects are still foggy. So, although the Soviet EDRD of the RD-502 (fuel pair - peroxide plus pentabran) and demonstrated the specific impulse of 3680 m / s, it remained experimental.

"My name is Bond. James Bond"

I think, hardly there are people who did not hear this phrase. Some fewer fans of "spy passions" will be able to call without a trip of all performers of the role of Supergent Intelligence Service in chronological order. And absolutely fans will remember this not quite ordinary gadget. At the same time, and in this area did not cost without an interesting coincidence that our world is so rich. Wendell Moore, Engineer of Bell Aerosystem and Single-Feathers of one of the most famous performers, became an inventor and one of the exotic means of movement of this eternal character - flying (or rather jumping).

Structurally, this device is as simple as fantastic. The foundation was three cylinders: one with a compressed to 40 atm. Nitrogen (shown in yellow) and two with hydrogen peroxide (blue color). The pilot turns the control knob and the valve controller (3) opens. Compressed nitrogen (1) displaces the liquid peroxide of hydrogen (2), which enters the tubes in the gas generator (4). There it comes into contact with the catalyst (thin silver plates covered with a layer of samarium nitrate) and decompose. The resulting steaway mixture of high pressure and temperature enters two pipes, emerging from the gas generator (pipes are covered with a layer of heat insulator to reduce heat loss). Then the hot gases are entered into the rotary jet nozzles (nozzle of the footer), where they first accelerate, and then expand, purchasing supersonic speed and creating a reactive traction.

Pold control and wheelchair knobs are mounted in a box that is reinforced on the pilot breast and are connected to the aggregates through cables. If you needed to turn to the side, the pilot rotated one of the handicrafts, rejecting one nozzle. In order to fly forward or backward, the pilot rotated both handwheel at the same time.

So it looked in theory. But in practice, as it often happened in the biography of hydrogen peroxide, everything turned out not quite so. Or rather, it is not like this: the wrath was not able to make a normal independent flight. The maximum duration of the rocket waller flight was 21 seconds, a range of 120 meters. At the same time, the satisfied was accompanied by a whole team of service personnel. For one twenty-second flight, up to 20 liters of hydrogen peroxide were consumed. According to the military, Bell Rocket Belt was rather a spectacular toy than an effective vehicle. The expenses of the army under the contract with Bell Aerosystem amounted to $ 150,000, another 50,000 dollars spent Bell herself. From further financing the program, the military refused, the contract was completed.

And yet it was still possible to fight with the "enemies of freedom and democracy", but only not in the hands of the Sons of Uncle Sam, but behind the shoulders of the film-super-super-survey. But what will be his further fate, the author will not make assumptions: ungrateful this thing is the future to predict ...

Perhaps, in this place, the story of the military quarry of this conventional and unusual substance can be put in the point. She was like in a fairy tale: and not long, and not short; and successful and failure; and promising, and unpromising. He was referred to him a great future, they tried to use in many energy-generating installations, disappointed and returned again. In general, everything is as in life ...

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